Archive for the ‘Software’ Category

Combinatorial Game Theory

August 29, 2007

Combinatorial Game Theory (CGT) is a mathematical discipline that studies two-player, zero-sum games, where the players play sequentially, and there is perfect information and no chance. The aim of CGT is to build mathematical theories that will help players win such games! In practice, the ideas from CGT are of minimal help to the serious player in more complicated games like Chess or Go, but the theories are extremely helpful for simpler but still non-trivial games like Dots-and-Boxes.

9781568811307.jpg

The CGT bible is Winning Ways for Your Mathematical Plays, a four-volume set of books (for the 2nd edition from the early 2000’s; the first edition from 1982 was in two volumes), by the eminent mathematicians Elwyn Berlekamp, John Horton Conway, and Richard Guy.

The basic idea of CGT is to develop a calculus, which lets you assign a value to a position in the game. One normally considers games with the condition that a player who cannot move loses. If both players are without a move in a position (whoever moves loses), the position is assigned a value of 0. If the player on the right can make one move that transforms the position to one of value 0, and the player on the left cannot move at all, the position is assigned a value of 1 (if the roles are reversed, the position has value -1).

Now what happens if the player on the left has a move to a position of value 0, and the player on the right has a move to a position of value 1? What is the value of that position? It turns out to be worth 1/2, as can be seen by considering the position obtained by adding such two such positions together with a position of value -1, when one gets back to a position of value 0 where whoever moves loses (I’ll let you work out the details).

There are more different kinds of values than just fractions. Berlekamp, Conway, and Guy consider a multitude of different interesting games, which give rise to ever deeper mathematics, and game positions with strange values along with complex rules for combining those values.

The writing is informal, with constant punning, but the mathematics is serious. Still, one charm of the field is that there is no pre-requisite mathematical material needed to understand these books–bright high school students can launch right in.

After finishing “Winning Ways,” the ambitious student can move on to the two volumes “Games of No Chance” and “More Games of No Chance” (note that nearly all the papers in these books are available online), and then move onto the rest of the papers collected at David Eppstein‘s CGT page.

Also, take a look at Aaron Siegel‘s Combinatorial Game Suite software to help you do CGT computations.

There’s still much more to say, but I’ll leave that for other posts.

Advertisement

Testing in Python Using doctest

August 26, 2007

Along with using version control, another absolute key to developing reliable software is to systematically test your code as you write it. After all, source code needs to be bug-free to function properly, but all human beings generate bugs at a very high rate when writing code.

Fortunately, Python makes testing remarkably easy and convenient with its doctest module, which lets you put your tests right into your doc strings.

Here’s a tiny example of its use (for more, go to the documentation):


def cube(x):
    """
    >>> cube(10)
    1000
    """
    return x * x

def _test():
    import doctest
    doctest.testmod()

if __name__ == "__main__":
    _test()

I intentionally left a bug in this code. Here’s what happens when I run it:


[yedidia ~] python cube.py
**********************************************************************
File "cube.py", line 3, in __main__.cube
Failed example:
    cube(10)
Expected:
    1000
Got:
    100
**********************************************************************
1 items had failures:
   1 of   1 in __main__.cube
***Test Failed*** 1 failures.

An advantage of using doctest is that your doc strings will serve as examples, as well as tests, of the functions that they document. Examples are often the best kind of documentation for a function.

In fact, I find that if a function doc string explains the inputs to the function, the variable(s) returned by the function, and any side effects, along with the doctest examples, then there is rarely any need for other comments.

My favorite way to develop python code is actually within Emacs. I write a test for a function, then write the function itself, and then type Control-C Control-C in Emacs. Control-C Control-C will execute the python code. If your code is set up to run a _test() function like the code above, then Emacs will open up another buffer which will contain any doctest failures. When all the tests pass, I finish up the documentation of the inputs, outputs, and side effects. That way you can systematically build up your software, one reliable and documented function at a time, while never leaving Emacs.

Emin Martinian taught me this technique. Another approach is to use the IPython enhanced python shell.

Note: to have Control-C Control-C execute python code, you’ll need to add the following lines to your .emacs file (more details here):


(autoload 'python-mode "python-mode" "Python Mode." t)
(add-to-list 'auto-mode-alist '("\.py\'" . python-mode))
(add-to-list 'interpreter-mode-alist '("python" . python-mode))

Of course, you should always keep all your old tests, both because they serve as examples, and also because if any new code somehow breaks an old function, you’ll see it immediately.

Computer Chess Software

August 26, 2007

The best chess playing entity in the world today is almost certainly the computer program “Rybka,” developed primarily by International Master Vasik Rajlich.

Rybka currently tops all the computer chess rating lists. Since Rybka is pretty clearly stronger than the Deep Fritz program that defeated World Champion Vladimir Kramnik 4-2 last year, there’s not much doubt that it is better than any human chess player.

Rybka is available as a plug-in chess engine, which means that you also need to have a chess graphical user interface (GUI) to use it. There are a variety of GUI’s available, including the free Arena GUI.

Rybka plays wonderful chess of course. It is free of all the problems that used to plague computer programs–for example it freely sacrifices material for positional compensation. Nevertheless, it’s not the program that I prefer, for a couple reasons.

First, it is only available for Windows (and Linux using Wine), and I wanted a program for Mac OS X. The strongest program for Macs is clearly Hiarcs 11, developed by Mark Uniacke. Although Hiarcs 11 seems to be somewhat weaker than Rybka, it is still stronger than Deep Fritz, and any human being.

gamewin.jpg

Most importantly, on Macs, Hiarcs is paired with the very nice chess “Sigma Chess” GUI. This GUI/engine combination sports the absolutely crucial feature, missing from any version of Rybka, that you can adjust its strength down to any level from world champion to amateur levels as low as 1250 Elo. If you don’t know what 1250 Elo means, you’re probably an amateur who will lose to a 1250–it’s the level amateurs typically reach after playing in tournaments for about one year. (Note: to obtain this feature on the Mac, you’ll need to spend $20 to get the “Pro” version of Sigma Chess, plus $50 for Hiarcs 11. You should also be able to adjust the level of Hiarcs on Windows GUI’s like Arena, although I have no personal experience with this.)

Amazingly, at whatever level you choose, Hiarcs plays a very human-like game. Previous computer programs, when weakened, played poorly strategically, but still did not make tactical errors. A weakened Hiarcs will make tactical mistakes that you can take advantage of, and will also play at an appropriate level of strategic understanding, so there is no particular reason to adopt anti-computer approaches when playing against it.

Of course, Hiarcs comes with many other features, including the ability to use it to analyze your games. Most grandmasters use these programs to aid in their training, and Hiarcs is well-known as one of the best engines to use.

Personally, I also enjoy just watching my Hiarcs 11.2 engine play blitz chess against the 11.1 engine that I previously used. It’s like watching a couple world champions duke it out. I think it’s worth appreciating, that at least for the game of chess, we now have $50-$70 software running on commodity hardware, that essentially passes the Turing test.

If you are a beginner, you might be better off choosing the mass-market Chessmaster, which comes packed with a lot of nice tutorials, as well as some very weak opponents to start with. However, I don’t like Chessmaster as much as Hiarcs because the weakened opponents in Chessmaster have the strong-tactics weak-strategy characteristics of computer programs that become so tiresome after a while.

Programming Erlang

August 23, 2007

CPU’s stopped getting faster about five years ago. Since then, Intel and AMD started introducing multi-core processors, and the trend for the foreseeable future seems to be more and more processors per computer. That will be great, so long as the software industry is able to take advantage of the increased number of processors to deliver bigger and faster applications. However, that means parallel programming is in our future, and parallel programming is hard.

What’s more, the current dominant paradigm to take advantage of multiprocessor systems is threads, and threads appear to have very serious problems. Berkeley professor Edward Lee argues in no uncertain terms that the inherent non-determinism of threads programming dooms any software testing approach to failure, and will lead to buggy unreliable programs:

“A folk definition of insanity is to do the same thing over and over again and to expect the results to be different. By this definition, we in fact require that programmers of multithreaded systems be insane. Were they sane, they could not understand their programs.”

“These same computer vendors are advocating more multi-threaded programming, so that there is concurrency that can exploit the parallelism they would like to sell us. Intel, for example, has embarked on an active campaign to get leading computer science academic programs to put more emphasis on multi-threaded programming. If they are successful, and the next generation of programmers makes more intensive use of multithreading, then the next generation of computers will become nearly unusable.”

images-1.jpg

Having read Lee’s paper, I was very interested when I learned of Joe Armstrong’s new book “Programming Erlang: Software for a Concurrent World.” Armstrong actually identifies a problem with threads that is related to but slightly different than non-determinism: the fact that different threads can access the same memory. Why is shared memory a big problem? Briefly, because a thread or process that needs to access shared memory must lock it, and if it crashes while the memory is locked, you’re in trouble. For more, see this post.

So what is Erlang, and what is it like? Well, it’s open-source, and has been developed and used in telecom companies for a long time, so there already exist extensive libraries. It is a general-purpose language designed for concurrent, distributed, and fault-tolerant applications. It adheres strongly to the functional programming paradigm. It is a dynamic language, comes with a shell, and uses pattern-matching extensively. In Erlang, it is easy to spawn very large numbers of very-lightweight processes. Processes communicate using messages, and do not share any memory. All in all, it’s a very funky language.

So far, I have only read a small portion of Armstrong’s book (through chapter 8, where concurrent programs are introduced), but it is already clear to me that this is a significant piece of work, well worth the time spent with it. Starting from scratch, Armstrong works his way up to explaining complex distributed and fault-tolerant applications, such as a streaming media server, that require surprisingly little code. I plan to say more in future blog posts, as I progress through the book. In the meantime, here’s a list of beginner Erlang links.

(By the way, in his paper quoted above, Edward Lee discusses Erlang briefly, and says that he believes that its unfamiliar syntax will continue to block its wide-spread adoption. I’m not so sure–perhaps Erlang has simply not broken through until now because there just wasn’t much need for a language suited for multi-processor programming.)

“On Intelligence” and Numenta

August 21, 2007


book.png

“On Intelligence,” written by Jeff Hawkins with Sandra Blakeslee, is a great read, full of provocative ideas about how our brains work.

Hawkins founded Palm Computing and Handspring, but he says that his true lifelong passion has been trying to understand our brains. In 2002, he founded the Redwood Neuroscience Institute (now the Redwood Center for Theoretical Neuroscience at Berkeley).

At Redwood, he developed a theory of the brain, that he expounds in this book. The book is a popular science book; you will not find any equations or explicit algorithms. It reads very smoothly, undoubtably due to the fact that Hawkins was helped in writing the book by Sandra Blakeslee, a science writer for the New York Times.

Hawkins argues that the cortex consists of modules that are all performing the same algorithm. The purpose of that algorithm is to learn to complete and predict the spatio-temporal patterns coming into a module from “lower” modules in the brain’s hierarchy, using feedback from “higher” modules.

I find this hypothesis for how the brain works extremely attractive, and “On Intelligence” argues for the hypothesis almost too well, in that the difficulties of converting the hypothesis into a concrete and useful algorithm will slip by the reader, as if by sleight of hand. The problem, of course, is that it is easy to use words to talk about how a brain might work; the hard part is making a machine do the same thing.

Peter Dayan, a leading computational neuroscientist, has written a much more detailed review. And for a 2006 lecture by Hawkins about his theory, you can watch this video.

After reading the book, I actually spent a few weeks trying to make the hypothesis into a concrete algorithm, without much success. But Hawkins is certainly putting his money where his mouth is: he has founded a company, called Numenta, and Numenta has released software (the “Numenta Platform for Intelligent Computing” or “NuPIC”) that implements part of his theory. NuPIC appears to be based on software originally written by Numenta co-founder and Stanford graduate student Dileep George, but transformed by a team of software developers into a professional-quality product.

However, it is very disappointing that the NUPIC software does not include feedback in its hierarchies, nor does it let you learn and infer temporal patterns (only spatial ones). To be honest, I am not so surprised, because it was these elements (that are obviously central in Hawkins’ theory) that I found it so difficult to integrate into a real algorithm.

Numenta promises that future versions of NuPIC will fill these gaps. I sincerely wish them the best of luck! I should say that I think it is wonderful that an impatient guy like Hawkins pushes the field, using a different approach than the standard academic one.

So in summary, you should definitely read Hawkins’ book, and if you’re intrigued, you should by all means check out the free Numenta software. Whether this line of research will lead to anything significant though, I’m not really sure…

Marvel Trading Card Game / Magic the Gathering

August 7, 2007


61uwcobzlql_aa280_.jpg

Are you looking for a challenging strategy game in a portable format? If so, this is the game for you. This is an example of a remarkable piece of work that is being seriously under-appreciated.

A little background is in order. Collectible card games (now called “trading card games”) began in 1993 with “Magic the Gathering,” a game designed by Richard Garfield, who was just then earning his Ph.D. in mathematics at Penn.

The basic idea of Magic the Gathering is that you build your own deck of cards (which set of cards you can select from depends on the precise rules of the format you are playing) and then “duel” against an opponent who has built his own deck.

In a duel, you start with 20 “life” points, and the objective is to reduce your opponent to zero points before they do the same to you. You play some of your cards as “creatures” which attack your opponent or defend you against your opponent’s creatures. There are other cards that act as “sorceries,” “instants,” “artifacts,” or “enchantments,” which are “spells” that you cast and have all sorts of different effects, like killing creatures, reducing your opponent’s life, making your creatures stronger, and so on. (There are many other possibilities–there now exist roughly 10,000 different cards, so you can appreciate that they do many different things.) Each creature or other spell is paid for with “mana” that you usually obtain from your “land” cards.

When you play a “spell” it is put on a “stack,” and your opponent has a chance to respond to it before it “resolves.” Much as in a computer stack, the spells can pile up, and are resolved in last in, first out, order. Since many of the cards have effects which violate the normal rules, it can be very complicated to keep track of what is going on.

The key to winning in Magic is to design a deck where your cards act synergistically with each other, and then to be able to take advantage of all the subtle interactions and timing effects. It’s incredibly difficult and challenging to play well, no less challenging than Chess, and like Chess, it can be played either casually or in serious tournaments.

If you want to learn more about Magic, you should visit www.magicthegathering.com, which has a vast amount of information. You should probably start with the “Magic Academy” articles, and this article in particular.

250px-magic_players.jpg

I personally played seriously between 2004 and 2006, and my highlight was reaching 2nd place in a rather serious “Pro tour qualifier” tournament in 2005 (see the picture above for what one of these tournaments is like) with my Blue-White Ninja deck (although in that link, the Mike Flores gives me too much credit for the deck design; I copied an obscure but brilliant deck I found on the internet, a practice referred to as “net-decking”). For the last year, though, I haven’t played much, and my son Adam has seriously surpassed me in in both playing and deck-designing ability.

Magic the Gathering has been fantastically popular for a serious card game, and has spawned many imitations because of its ridiculously successful business model. Because the cards that are legal to build your decks with keep changing, the game keeps evolving (which is nice), but that means you have to keep spending money to buy more cards (which may not be so nice for you, but it is certainly nice for the publishers.) Actually, it’s a little more complicated than that–they’ve cleverly arranged it so that your old cards are still legal for some formats, and since they are no longer printed, those old cards tend to hold their value pretty well. And many Magic players actually quite enjoy collecting and trading their cards.

Anyways, most of the imitations, like Pokemon card game, Yu-gi-oh, or Duel Masters, are vastly simplified games targeting a younger set. (Most Magic players are males between the ages of 15 and 30.)

One imitative game, which at least roughly equals Magic in complexity and interest, is the “Marvel Trading Card Game” (also known as “Versus System.”) The theme is a little different; it has superheroes battling villains instead of monsters fighting and wizards casting spells and so on, but it works very similarly. Forgetting about the theme, and judging them strictly as abstract games, there’s little to make one prefer one game very much over the other–they are clearly closely related, and the competitive Marvel scene is dominated by Magic players.

Unfortunately, no versions of Magic have come out for portable game systems. There was a computer game back in 1998, but its AI was really pretty bad. There is a version of Magic the Gathering that can be played online, but you need to buy the cards for the same price as you pay for real cards. (You are able to play for free against other beginners with simple starter decks.) You can also play for free online using the excellent Magic Workstation program, but Magic Workstation doesn’t enforce the rules, so you need to be a relatively experienced player to use it.

Probably Wizards of the Coast (the publishers of Magic) haven’t wanted to cut into their card sales with a computer or portable game that effectively gives you a huge number of cards to play with for a relatively small price, or possibly they don’t believe that it’s possible to program an AI that plays Magic competently.

There have been numerous Yu-gi-oh and Duel Masters games for Nintendo DS’s and Gameboys, but I find those games to be distinctly inferior to Magic.

Anyways, we now have “Marvel Trading Card Game” for the DS, PSP, or PC. I have the DS version for my DS Lite. To play the game on a DS, you hold your DS sideways like a book. The game board is shown on the touchscreen, and you poke at your cards with the stylus to play them. On the other screen the currently selected card is shown in detail so that you can read all of its rules.

You can follow two “paths” through the game, one where you play with superhero cards, and one where you play with villain cards. When you win duels, you are rewarded with new cards, which you can use to make a more powerful deck, which you will definitely need to do, because your opponents’ decks will get more powerful. The game includes about 800 different cards in all. There are also tutorials and very challenging puzzles.

In general this is an extremely challenging game! The AI is very impressive (and it gets some advantage from having slightly better decks than you). You can win, but you will need think hard and play very carefully. After the first couple opponents, you start facing good decks, and I started losing duels more often than winning them. But since I can always identify my errors when I lose, it doesn’t feel unfair, just challenging. Each duel will take about 40 minutes (Versus duels tend to last longer than Magic duels, which typically only take 20 minutes). You can also play online with other players, but I haven’t tried that, because if I wanted to play online, I would just use Magic Workstation.

The game has been getting mediocre reviews (they mostly complain that the game is so hard; another problem is that the music is pretty bad–I agree that you should turn off the sound), so my viewpoint is obviously a minority one. But nevertheless, if you like Magic, or want to see what serious trading card games are about, or want something that will make the time fly during a long plane or train trip, I recommend you pick this up.

Version Control Using Subversion

August 5, 2007

I’ve worked with some twenty-odd interns over the last few years at MERL, all of them graduate students at top electrical engineering and computer science departments from around the world. I’ve also interviewed many more job candidates for our research lab. One fact that has continually amazed me is what a tiny fraction of them have had any previous experience using version control (also called “source code management”) systems.

Version control lets you save each version of a software project as you build it up. Because you know that you can always back up to a previous working version, you are much more confident in writing new code. All professional software developers use version control on every project they work on; working without it is sometimes compared to trying to write a novel with a word-processor that doesn’t have a delete key.

If you’re getting started with version control, I recommend that you use Subversion, (also known as “svn”) which has several fundamental improvements over the older CVS system. A free book explaining the system comes with it, but I also recommend “Pragmatic Version Control Using Subversion”, by Mike Mason.

If you’re a budding programmer or a graduate student in an EECS department, think of it this way–not only will using version control help you write better software, but it will help you get a job if you ever want to go into industry. I doubt we’re the only ones who routinely ask candidates whether they’ve used version control to help assess their software development skills. [And if it crossed your mind, you can’t fake your way through this; if you say that you’ve used it, you’ll get follow-ups.]

SimPy and Discrete-Event Simulation

August 3, 2007

I’ve been using the SimPy discrete-event simulation package lately, and I really like it.

As the SimPy home page says, “SimPy (= Simulation in Python) is an object-oriented, process-based discrete-event simulation language based on standard Python.” What does that mean? Well, first of all, it is a Python module, and you import and then use it like any other Python module.

(If you haven’t used Python, get yourself over to www.python.org and download it now! Or if you use Mac OS X or Linux, you already have it. Python is a powerful, high-level general-purpose language, and comes with excellent documentation.)

“Discrete-event simulations” are something a good nerd will often need to write. They are simulations where things happen at discrete times. There are three levels of sophistication in handling such simulations. Level zero is to just step forward in time by small increments, checking every time step for each possible event. Not too bright, because you waste a lot of computation on time steps when nothing happens. Level one is the “event-oriented” approach, where you keep events in some “agenda,” and you process events in the agenda one at a time, with each event in the agenda possibly creating new events in the future that are then added to the agenda.

Level one is as far as most people get, but it’s not where you should stop, because writing an event-oriented simulation is painful and error-prone. The right thing to do is to go to the next level of sophistication, the “process-oriented” approach.

In the process-oriented approach, you create special objects, called processes, which are like “living” objects. Processes have a special event method which functions as an event loop. To program the events in your simulation, you need to write one or more process event methods which describes how each process object reacts to the possible events in the simulation. It turns out that these process event methods are very natural and easy to write, because they properly correspond to how we think about what is happening in the simulation.

So how does it work? Well, SimPy sets up and handles the event agenda underlying the system, so you don’t have to do it yourself. When you call the SimPy “simulate()” method, it begins stepping through the events in the event agenda, calling the appropriate process event methods defined in your processes in the correct order. The Python feature that makes the whole thing work is the Python “yield” statement, which is like a return, except that the next time a function with a “yield” is called, it picks up after the yield rather than at the beginning of the function. All the process event methods you define when using SimPy will use yields to give back control to the SimPy run-time system.

Anyways, Professor Norm Matloff from UC Davis has written some excellent tutorials, or you can use the documentation that comes with SimPy.

Zillions of Games

August 2, 2007

Visit Zillions of Games

If you like abstract games, especially chess variants, you should enjoy Zillions of Games. It’s quite an amazing piece of software; a piece of AI technology that I actually would have not thought possible.

Games are defined using a rules file (written in a Lisp-like language), and then a generalized alpha-beta search engine is unleashed. Basically, it works best for Chess and its many variants, but it plays a really surprising number of games very well. It comes with over 350 games and puzzles, and you can download thousands more.

It’s not that hard to modify existing rules files to define new games; my son was interested in having an opponent for a game he invented and we were able to modify an existing rules file to play his game in less than an hour–and it played very well.

Naturally, it doesn’t play all games as well as humans, but it plays so many games so well (with adjustable levels to make a fair fight if it’s too good) that one can’t complain. Unfortunately, it’s only available for Windows computers.